Posture and Postural Dysfunction in Dogs

Implications for Vet Physios

In a recent research refresh for the small animal membership, we covered the newly published research by Michael, McGowan and Hyytiäinen (2024) on posture and postural dysfunction in dogs, and the implications it has for Veterinary Physiotherapists.

I wanted to share a summary of this highly informative article with you.

Canine Posture

Posture is defined as the ‘biomechanical alignment of the body and its orientation within and in relation to the environment’ (Shumway-Cook & Woollacott, 2007). When considering posture, we need to evaluate the regions of the body and their relationship to one another, as they respond to their own position and to the environment around them.

When optimal alignment of the skeletal structure is achieved, a body can maintain perfect equilibrium, whether in motion or statically, with the least amount of energy expenditure.

Various factors have been shown to affect posture, including advances in age, adaptations resulting from injury, the presence of pain or weakness, insufficient neuromotor control, and changes in an animal’s emotional state.

As Veterinary Physiotherapists or Vetrehabbers, our goal in rehabilitation is to restore optimal functional movement patterns and biomechanics in our patients. To successfully restore muscle function and recruitment patterns, we must first restore the correct alignment of the body. Postural retraining goes hand in hand with functional neuromuscular retraining and rehabilitation. One cannot successfully be implemented without the other.

Postural Adaptation in Canine Hip Dysplasia

I love that Michael et al. (2024) start this paper with a discussion of the postural adaptations occurring in the common condition, canine hip dysplasia.

In the article, they highlight that canine HD causes atrophy of the hind limb musculature, leading to increased flexion of the thoracolumbar spine, a caudal pelvic tilt, and a cranial shift of the centre of mass. These adaptations in the hindquarter lead to an overused thoracic sling.

Green arrows indicate the postural adaptations as seen in canine hip dysplasia

During our intervention, we want to improve postural control by first bringing the body into normal alignment, and then activating and challenging the areas of weakness and atrophy. We therefore need to encourage the de-activation of the pelvic and thoracolumbar flexors, including the iliopsoas, to allow the pelvis and thoracolumbar spine to come into neutral alignment. At the same time, we want to encourage the activation of the hip extensors and stabilisers, including the hamstrings, gluteals and epaxial muscles.

For client education resources on hip dysplasia that you can make your own, visit Dr Meg Kelly.com

Postural Control in Dogs

Postural control is a complex interaction between the environment, the nervous system, the musculoskeletal system, and the sensory systems of the body. Sensory feedback from the visual, vestibular and mechanoreceptors in the body provide information on the location of different body segments within the environment and how they relate to one another.

Higher control centres in the central nervous system can anticipate movement that is potentially destabilising and will respond proactively. Spinal cord mechanisms and supraspinal pathways integrate sensory input and plan coordinated motor output.

Components of the musculoskeletal system that contribute to postural control include joint range of motion, the properties of muscles, biomechanics and flexibility. Muscle tone and activity needs to be regulated in relation to antagonistic soft tissue structures, including muscle and connective tissue, joints and bones.

Optimal muscle tone and peak contraction forces can be achieved when the muscle is at its specific functional resting length, which can be described by the muscle length–tension relationship. The functional resting length can change as a result of adaptation to poor posture or in response to injury. This adaptation results in further changes to the muscle tone, resting length, and connective tissue tone and length, which leads to changes in posture and biomechanics that can lead to further injury and dysfunction in the body.

Measuring Postural Control

Postural control or stability can be objectively assessed through the measurement of the sway and migration of the centre of pressure, using force platforms or pressure mats. This is known as posturography.

Posturography can also provide data on the centre of mass (COM), centre of gravity (COG), and the base of support. In stance, the COP moves around the COM to keep it within the base of support (Michael et al., 2024). This can be measured for the entire body, or for one limb. It can be measured in static stance, or dynamically in motion.

Keep Learning

To dive deeper into the research published on canine posture analysis, please watch the research refresh on this topic in the small animal membership, read the article referenced here, or take a deep dive into the articles listed in the references below.

There is a wealth of information here that can add depth to our canine evaluations and treatment plans. Enjoy the ‘never stop learning’ journey, Vetrehabbers!

• Michael, H. E., McGowan, C. M. & Hyytiäinen, H. K. 2024. Posture and Postural Dysfunction in Dogs: Implications for Veterinary Physiotherapy. In Veterinary Journal (Vol. 305). Bailliere Tindall Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tvjl.2024.106107
• Bieber, B., Reicher, B., Tichy, A. & Bockstahler, B. 2022. Changes in ground reaction forces and centre of pressure parameters of paws when wearing dog boots in dogs. Frontiers in Veterinary Science 9, 906277.
• Blau, S.R., Davis, L.M., Gorney, A.M., Dohse, C.S., Williams, K.D., Lim, J.-H., Pfitzner, W. G., Laber, E., Sawicki, G.S. & Olby, N.J. 2017. Quantifying centre of pressure variability in chondrodystrophoid dogs. Veterinary Journal 226, 26–31
• Bockstahler, B., Krautler, C., Holler, P., Kotschwar, A., Vobornik, A. & Peham, C. 2012. Pelvic limb kinematics and surface electromyography of the vastus lateralis, biceps femoris and gluteus medius muscle in dogs with hip osteoarthritis. Veterinary Surgery 41, 54–62.
• Boström, A., Channon, S., Jokinen, T., Junnila, J., Hielm-Björkman, A. & Laitinen- Vapaavuori, O. 2019. Structural characteristics and predicted functional capacities of epaxial muscles in chondrodystrophic and non-chondrodystropic dogs with and without suspected intervertebral disc herniation: A preliminary study. Research in Veterinary Science 123, 204–215
• Braga, D.A., Padilha, F.G.F. & Ferreira, A.M.R. 2016. Evaluation of muscle fibre types in German shepherd dogs of different ages. The Anatomical Record 299, 1540–1547
• Braun, L., Tichy, C., Peham, B. & Bockstahler, B. 2019. Comparison of vertical force, redistribution in the pads of dogs with elbow osteoarthritis and healthy dogs. Veterinary Journal 250, 79–85.
• Breitfuss, K., Franz, M., Peham, C. & Bockstahler, B. 2015. Surface electromyography of the vastus lateralis, biceps femoris and gluteus medius muscles in sound dogs during walking and specific physiotherapeutic exercises. Veterinary Surgery 44, 588–595.
• Carrillo, J.M., Manera, M.E., Rubio, M., Sopena, J., Santana, A. & Vilar, J.M. 2018. Posturography and dynamic pedobarography in lame dogs with elbow dysplasia and cranial cruciate ligament rupture. BioMed Central Veterinary Research 14, 1–12
• Charalambous, D., Strasser, T., Tichy, A. & Bockstahler, B. 2022. Ground reaction force and centre of pressure within the paws when stepping over obstacles in dogs. Animals 12, 1702.
• Charalambous, D., Lutonsky, C., Keider, S., Tichy, A. & Bockstahler, B. 2023. Vertical ground reaction, paw pressure distribution, and center of pressure during heelwork in working dogs competing in obedience. Frontier in Veterinary Science 10, 1106170.
• Farrell, M., Clements, D.N., Mellor, T., Gemmill, T., Clarke, S.P., Arnott, J.L., Bennett, S. & Carmichael, S. 2007. Retrospective evaluation of the long-term outcome of non-surgical management of 74 dogs with clinical hip dysplasia. Veterinary Record 160, 506–511
• Ferres, K., Schloesser, T. & Gloor, P.A. 2022. Predicting dog emotions based on posture analysis using DeepLabCut. Future Internet 14, 97
• Humphries, A., Shaheen, A.F. & Gomez Alvarez, C.B. 2020a. Biomechanical comparison of standing posture and during trot between German shepherd and Labrador retriever dogs. PLoS ONE 2.
• Humphries, A., Shaheen, A.F. & Gomez Alvarez, C.B. 2020b. Different conformations of the German shepherd dog breed affect its posture and movement. Nature Portfolio 10, 1–16.
• Lewis, M.J., Williams, K.D., Langley, T., Jarvis, L.M., Sawicki, G.S. & Olby, N.J. 2019. Development of a novel gait analysis tool measuring centre of pressure. for evaluation of canine chronic thoracolumbar spinal cord injury. Journal Neurotrauma 36, 3018–3302.
• Lopez, S., Vilar, J.M., Rubio, M., Sopena, J.J., Santana, A., Rodriguez, O., Rodriguez, Altonaga, J.A. & Carillo, J.M. 2019. Pedobarography: A novel approach to test the efficacy of treatments for lameness; an experience with mavacoxib in dogs with elbow osteoarthritis. BioMed Central Veterinary Research 15, 193
• Lutonsky, C., Peham, C., Mucha, M., Reicher, B., Gaspar, R., Tichy, T. & Bockstahler, B. 2023. External mechanical perturbations challenge postural stability in dogs. Frontiers in Veterinary Science 10, 1249951
• Mondino, A., Wagner, G., Russell, K., Lobaton, E., Griffith, E., Gruen, M., Lascelles, D.X. & Olby, N.J. 2022. Static posturography as a novel measure of the effects of aging on postural control in dogs. PLoS ONE 17, 7.
• Reicher, B., Tichy, A. & Bockstahler, B. 2020. Centre of pressure in paws of clinically sounds dogs in comparison with orthopaedically diseased dogs. Animals 10, 1366
• Schilling, N. & Carrier, D.R. 2010. Function of the epaxial muscles in walking, trotting and galloping dogs: Implications for the evolution of epaxial muscle function in tetrapods. Journal of Experimental Biology 213, 1490–1502.
• Shaheen, A.F., Lins, D., Toledo, T. & Gomez-Alvarez, C.B. 2023. Postural stability measures in healthy miniature dachshunds obtained using a pressure mat and a force platform: A validity and reliability study. BioMed Central Veterinary Research 19, 79.
• Vero, A.M., Wagner, G., Lobaton, E., Russell, K. & Olby, N. 2021. Age-related change in posture steadiness in the companion dog. Innovation Aging 5, 959–960.
• Webster, E.L., Hudson, P.E. & Channon, S.B. 2014. Comparative functional anatomy of the epaxial musculature of dogs bred for sprinting versus fighting. Journal of Anatomy 225, 317–327.
• Williams, S.B., Wilson, A.M., Rhodes, L. & Payne, R.C. 2008b. Functional anatomy and muscle moment arms of the pelvic limb of an elite sprinting athlete: The racing greyhound. Journal of Anatomy 213, 361–372.
• Zatterström, R., Friden, T., Lindstrand, A. & Moritz, U. 1994. The effect of physiotherapy on standing balance in chronic anterior cruciate ligament insufficiency. American Journal of Sports Medicine 22, 531–536.